The rich tapestry of French history spans from prehistoric times, when Neanderthals and early humans left their mark in caves like Lascaux, through to the present day. What began as ancient Gaul, inhabited by Celtic tribes, was transformed by Roman conquest in 50 BCE into a thriving Gallo-Roman culture that laid the foundations for modern France. After the fall of Rome, the Frankish kingdoms emerged under Clovis I, leading to the powerful Carolingian Empire under Charlemagne, before the establishment of the Kingdom of France in 987 under the Capetian dynasty. The nation weathered significant transformations through the medieval period, the Renaissance, and most dramatically during the French Revolution of 1789, which abolished the monarchy and established a republic. Through the turbulent periods of Napoleon's empire, two world wars, and the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958, France has maintained its position as a significant cultural, military and political force in Europe and globally.
Here is a timeline of the key events in French history, covering major political, social, and cultural developments. From Gaul to today's Fifth Republic.
Prehistoric and Ancient Gaul
40,000-10,000 BCE: Paleolithic cultures flourish in France, leaving behind cave paintings such as those at Lascaux and Chauvet.
5000-2000 BCE: Neolithic farmers settle in France, introducing agriculture and animal husbandry.
1200-50 BCE: Celtic tribes migrate to and settle in Gaul, bringing iron-working technology.
600 BCE: Greek colonists found Massalia (modern Marseille), establishing France's oldest city. This Phocaean colony becomes a major trading port, introducing Greek culture and viticulture to the region.
400-50 BCE: Gallic tribes form complex societies, with oppida (fortified settlements) emerging as centres of trade and governance.
Roman Gaul
58-50 BCE: Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul, documented in his "Commentarii de Bello Gallico," integrates the region into the Roman Empire.
52 BCE: Vercingetorix, a Gallic chieftain, unites tribes against Roman invasion but is defeated at the Siege of Alesia.
27 BCE-476 CE: Pax Romana brings stability and development to Gaul. The Gallo-Roman culture emerges, laying linguistic and cultural foundations for modern France.
250-280 CE: Crisis of the Third Century leads to increased Germanic incursions and the formation of the Gallic Empire.
313 CE: Edict of Milan legalises Christianity, accelerating its spread in Gaul.
Early Medieval Period
406 CE: Rhine crossing by Germanic tribes marks the beginning of the Migration Period in Gaul.
451 CE: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains - Roman and Visigothic forces defeat Attila the Hun, halting Hunnic expansion into Western Europe.
481-511 CE: Reign of Clovis I, who unifies Frankish tribes and establishes the Merovingian dynasty. His conversion to Catholicism in 496 CE secures Church support against Arian Visigoths.
511-751 CE: Merovingian rule characterised by decentralisation and the rise of powerful mayors of the palace.
732 CE: Charles Martel halts Umayyad Caliphate expansion at the Battle of Tours, preserving Frankish-Christian dominance in Western Europe.
751 CE: Pepin the Short deposes the last Merovingian king, establishing the Carolingian dynasty with papal support.
Carolingian Empire
768-814: Reign of Charlemagne, who expands Frankish territory and is crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE.
814-843: Charlemagne's death triggers fragmentation, culminating in the Treaty of Verdun (843), which divides the empire among his grandsons. Charles the Bald receives West Francia, the precursor to modern France.
885-886: Siege of Paris by Vikings prompts the construction of fortifications and the rise of the Robertian dynasty.
911: Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte establishes Normandy, granting land to Viking leader Rollo in exchange for protection against further raids.
Capetian France (987-1328)
987: Hugh Capet is elected King of the Franks, founding the Capetian dynasty and initiating centralised rule from Paris.
1066: William, Duke of Normandy, conquers England, creating a powerful cross-Channel realm that challenges Capetian authority.
1095: Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont, beginning two centuries of French involvement in the Holy Land.
1180-1223: Reign of Philip II Augustus, who triples the royal domain through wars against Angevin England and establishes Paris as Europe's premier city.
1208-1229: Albigensian Crusade against Cathar heretics in southern France extends royal authority to the Mediterranean.
1214: Battle of Bouvines - Philip II Augustus defeats an Anglo-German coalition, solidifying Capetian power.
1226-1270: Reign of Louis IX (Saint Louis), who institutes judicial reforms, leads two crusades, and earns sainthood. The Mongol leader Hulagu seeks an alliance with him against Muslim powers.
1285-1314: Reign of Philip IV (the Fair), who clashes with the Papacy, suppresses the Knights Templar for their wealth, and establishes the Estates General.
Late Medieval France (1328-1498)
1337-1453: Hundred Years' War between England and France over dynastic claims to the French throne.
Key events:
- 1415: English victory at Agincourt
- 1429-1431: Joan of Arc leads French forces, lifting the Siege of Orléans and enabling Charles VII's coronation
- 1435: Treaty of Arras reconciles Burgundy with the French crown
- 1453: Battle of Castillon ends the war, leaving only Calais in English hands
1348-1350: Black Death kills an estimated 30-50% of the French population.
1358: Jacquerie peasant revolt in northern France is brutally suppressed.
1382: Maillotin revolt in Paris against taxation is crushed by Charles VI.
1461-1483: Reign of Louis XI, the "Spider King," who centralises royal authority and annexes Burgundy.
Renaissance and Wars of Religion (1498-1610)
1494-1559: Italian Wars see France and Habsburg Spain compete for control of the Italian Peninsula.
1515-1547: Reign of Francis I, who patronises the French Renaissance, importing artists like Leonardo da Vinci. His rivalry with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V shapes European politics.
1539: Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts makes French the official language of administration, replacing Latin.
1562-1598: French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) devastate the kingdom.
Key events:
- 1572: St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre sees 10,000 Huguenots killed in Paris
- 1589: Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, inherits the throne as Henry IV
- 1593: Henry IV converts to Catholicism, famously stating "Paris is worth a Mass"
- 1598: Edict of Nantes grants religious toleration to Protestants, ending the wars
Bourbon Absolutism (1610-1789)
1610-1643: Reign of Louis XIII, with Cardinal Richelieu as chief minister, centralising state power and challenging Habsburg hegemony.
1618-1648: Thirty Years' War involves France in a Europe-wide conflict, culminating in the Peace of Westphalia, which establishes the principle of state sovereignty.
1643-1715: Reign of Louis XIV, the "Sun King," epitomises absolutism. Key developments include:
- Construction of the Palace of Versailles
- Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), prompting Huguenot exodus
- War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
1715-1774: Reigns of Louis XV see France lose colonial possessions to Britain in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).
1751-1772: Publication of the Encyclopédie, edited by Diderot and d'Alembert, embodies Enlightenment ideals.
1774-1789: Reign of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. Financial crisis and social inequality fuel revolutionary sentiment.
French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (1789-1815)
1789:
- Estates-General convened to address financial crisis
- Third Estate declares itself the National Assembly
- Storming of the Bastille (July 14) marks the Revolution's symbolic start
- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen adopted
1790: Civil Constitution of the Clergy nationalises the Catholic Church in France.
1791: Flight to Varennes - Failed escape attempt by Louis XVI and his family.
1792:
- France declares war on Austria, beginning the Revolutionary Wars
- Monarchy abolished; First French Republic established
1793:
- Louis XVI executed for treason
- Reign of Terror begins under the Committee of Public Safety
- Levée en masse introduces mass conscription
1794: Thermidorian Reaction ends the Terror; Robespierre executed.
1795: Directory established as new government.
1796-1797: Napoleon Bonaparte's Italian Campaign brings military glory and wealth to France.
1798-1801: Egyptian Campaign exposes France to ancient Egyptian culture, spurring Egyptomania.
1799: Napoleon's coup d'état establishes the Consulate.
1804: Napoleon crowned Emperor; Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) promulgated.
1805: Battle of Austerlitz - Napoleon's greatest victory against Austro-Russian forces.
1812: Disastrous Russian campaign begins the decline of Napoleon's empire.
1814: First abdication of Napoleon; Bourbon Restoration under Louis XVIII.
1815: Hundred Days culminating in Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo.
19th Century France (1815-1900)
1815-1830: Bourbon Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X attempts to reverse revolutionary changes.
1830: July Revolution deposes Charles X; Louis-Philippe installed as "Citizen King."
1830-1848: July Monarchy sees industrial development and colonial expansion in Algeria.
1848:
- February Revolution overthrows Louis-Philippe
- Second Republic established; Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected president
1851: Louis-Napoleon's coup d'état.
1852-1870: Second Empire under Napoleon III modernises France but collapses after defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
1870-1871:
- Siege of Paris by Prussian forces
- Paris Commune briefly rules the capital before brutal suppression
1871-1940: Third Republic established, bringing stability and democratic reforms:
- Secular education laws of the 1880s
- Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) divides French society
- Separation of Church and State (1905)
1881-1914: Scramble for Africa sees France build its second colonial empire, focusing on North and West Africa.
20th Century and Beyond
1914-1918: World War I costs France 1.4 million lives but results in the return of Alsace-Lorraine.
1919: Treaty of Versailles imposes harsh terms on Germany, sowing seeds for future conflict.
1920s: "Années folles" (Roaring Twenties) see cultural flourishing in Paris.
1929-1939: Great Depression and rise of fascism challenge French democracy.
1940:
- German invasion and defeat of France
- Establishment of Vichy regime under Marshal Pétain
- Charles de Gaulle forms Free French forces in exile
1944: Allied landings in Normandy (D-Day) and Liberation of Paris.
1946-1958: Fourth Republic marked by governmental instability and decolonisation struggles:
- First Indochina War (1946-1954)
- Algerian War (1954-1962)
1958: Fifth Republic established under Charles de Gaulle, featuring a strong presidency.
1960s:
- France develops nuclear weapons, withdraws from NATO's integrated military command
- May 1968 student and worker protests challenge social norms
1973-1974: Oil crisis ends trente glorieuses (30 years of post-war economic growth).
1981-1995: François Mitterrand's presidency sees socialist reforms and European integration.
1992: Maastricht Treaty signed, establishing the European Union.
2002: Euro currency adopted, replacing the franc.
2015: November Paris attacks by Islamic State terrorists kill 130 people.
2018-2019: Yellow Vest protests against economic inequality and fuel tax increases.
2020: COVID-19 pandemic severely impacts France, leading to nationwide lockdowns.