History of Portugal

Prehistoric and Ancient Portugal

The territory of modern Portugal has been inhabited for thousands of years. Archaeological evidence suggests human presence dating back to the Lower Palaeolithic period, approximately 400,000 years ago. The region was home to Neanderthals, with significant remains found in the Lagar Velho site, including the famous "Lapedo Child" – a Palaeolithic child skeleton showing both Neanderthal and early modern human features.

Around 10,000 BCE, the Mesolithic period brought significant changes as hunter-gatherers established settlements along the Tagus River estuary, with notable shell middens at Muge showing evidence of a seafood-rich diet. The Neolithic period (5000-3000 BCE) saw the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry, with megalithic culture flourishing, evidenced by hundreds of dolmens, menhirs, and stone circles, particularly in the Alentejo region.

The Chalcolithic period (3000-2000 BCE) witnessed the development of copper metallurgy and fortified settlements like Vila Nova de São Pedro and Zambujal. The Bronze Age (2000-700 BCE) brought significant cultural changes and increased contact with other Mediterranean civilisations.

From approximately 1000 BCE, Celtic peoples migrated into the region, mixing with indigenous populations to form Celtiberian culture. The southern coastal areas were colonised by Phoenicians who established trading posts at Olisipo (Lisbon) and other locations from the 10th century BCE. Greeks also established small colonies along the coast.

By the 3rd century BCE, the region was inhabited by various peoples including the Lusitanians, Calaicians, Celtici, and Cynetes. The Lusitanians, led by Viriathus, fiercely resisted Roman expansion in the 2nd century BCE. After Viriathus's assassination in 139 BCE, resistance gradually diminished.

Roman and Post-Roman Period

Roman conquest of the territory began during the Second Punic War but was only completed under Emperor Augustus. The region was incorporated into the province of Lusitania, with its capital at Emerita Augusta (modern Mérida, Spain). Other important Roman cities included Olisipo (Lisbon), Bracara Augusta (Braga), and Conimbriga.

Romanisation brought urban development, infrastructure (including the impressive aqueduct at Conímbriga), Latin language, Roman law, and eventually Christianity. The territory prospered as it exported wine, olive oil, horses, wool, salt, and fish sauce (garum) throughout the empire.

The decline of the Roman Empire brought significant changes. In 409 CE, Germanic tribes including Suevi, Vandals, and Alans invaded the Iberian Peninsula. The Suevi established a kingdom in northwest Iberia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal) that lasted over 170 years. In 585 CE, the Visigothic Kingdom conquered the Suevi, unifying the peninsula under their rule.

In 711 CE, Muslim forces crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and rapidly conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula, including present-day Portugal. The territory became part of Al-Andalus, with Islamic rule lasting longest in the south. This period saw significant cultural and agricultural advancements, including the introduction of new crops like rice, oranges, and sugar cane, and irrigation techniques that transformed agriculture.

The Reconquista and Birth of Portugal

The Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula began shortly after the Muslim conquest. By the early 11th century, the County of Portugal existed as a vassal state of the Kingdom of León. In 1095 CE, Count Henry of Burgundy was granted the County of Portugal as a reward for military service, establishing the Burgundian dynasty.

Henry's son, Afonso Henriques, declared himself Prince of Portugal in 1128 after defeating his mother, Teresa of León, and her ally Count Fernão Peres de Trava at the Battle of São Mamede. This battle is often considered the beginning of Portuguese national identity. Afonso Henriques proclaimed himself King of Portugal in 1139 after the Battle of Ourique against the Almoravids.

The independence of Portugal was formally recognised by the Kingdom of León in 1143 through the Treaty of Zamora. In 1179, Pope Alexander III's papal bull "Manifestis Probatum" officially recognised Afonso I as king, confirming Portugal's status as an independent kingdom.

The Reconquista continued under subsequent kings. Sancho I (r. 1185-1211) focused on settling depopulated areas and strengthening royal power. Afonso II (r. 1211-1223) implemented administrative reforms and the first written laws. Sancho II (r. 1223-1248) continued the reconquest but was deposed due to conflicts with the Church and nobility.

Afonso III (r. 1248-1279) completed the reconquest by capturing the Algarve in 1249, establishing Portugal's continental borders that have remained largely unchanged for over 800 years – making them among the oldest fixed borders in Europe.

The Late Middle Ages and Dynastic Crisis

Dinis I (r. 1279-1325), known as "The Farmer King," promoted agriculture, commerce, and education, founding the University of Coimbra in 1290 (one of the oldest continuously operating universities in the world). He also made Portuguese, rather than Latin, the official language of the royal court and administration.

The 14th century brought challenges including the Great Famine (1315-1317) and the Black Death (1348-1349), which killed approximately one-third of Portugal's population. The reign of Fernando I (r. 1367-1383) was marked by wars with Castile that drained the treasury.

Fernando's death triggered a succession crisis as his only child, Beatriz, was married to King Juan I of Castile. Opposition to potential Castilian rule led to the 1383-1385 Revolution. João, Master of Avis (illegitimate half-brother of Fernando), emerged as leader of the independence faction and was proclaimed king by the Cortes (parliament) in 1385.

João I (r. 1385-1433) secured his position by defeating Castile at the Battle of Aljubarrota in 1385, with crucial help from English longbowmen. This victory cemented Portuguese independence and led to the Treaty of Windsor in 1386, establishing an Anglo-Portuguese alliance that remains the oldest diplomatic alliance still in force today.

The Age of Discoveries

The Age of Discoveries began under the guidance of Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), son of João I. Though he rarely travelled himself, Henry sponsored voyages of exploration along the African coast, established a navigation school at Sagres, and gathered astronomers, cartographers, and shipbuilders to advance maritime technology.

Portuguese mariners made remarkable achievements:

• 1415: Conquest of Ceuta in North Africa, marking the beginning of European overseas expansion
• 1418-1420: Rediscovery and colonisation of Madeira
• 1427: Discovery of the Azores
• 1434: Gil Eanes rounded Cape Bojador, previously considered the limit of navigable waters
• 1444: Establishment of the first European slave trading post at Arguin
• 1460: Exploration of the Cape Verde Islands
• 1471: Crossing of the Equator
• 1482: Establishment of Elmina Castle (Ghana), the first European trading post in sub-Saharan Africa
• 1488: Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope
• 1498: Vasco da Gama reached India, establishing a sea route to Asia
• 1500: Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil
• 1510: Conquest of Goa, which became the capital of Portuguese India
• 1511: Conquest of Malacca, controlling the strategic strait
• 1513: Jorge Álvares reached China
• 1543: Portuguese traders arrived in Japan

These explorations were motivated by a combination of factors: seeking a sea route to Asian spices to bypass Venetian and Ottoman middlemen, spreading Christianity, finding the mythical kingdom of Prester John, and acquiring gold and slaves.

The Portuguese developed the caravel, a highly manoeuvrable sailing ship that could sail against the wind using a triangular lateen sail. They also perfected the volta do mar (return from the sea) technique, using prevailing winds and currents to navigate efficiently.

The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This gave Portugal control of the eastern route around Africa to India and the western portion of South America (Brazil).

The Portuguese Empire

At its height in the 16th and early 17th centuries, the Portuguese Empire spanned four continents with possessions in:

• Africa: Ceuta, Tangier, Mazagan, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Angola, Mozambique
• Asia: outposts from Hormuz to Japan, including Goa, Daman, Diu, Bombay, Malacca, Macau
• South America: Brazil
• North America: brief settlements in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia

Unlike the Spanish Empire's focus on territorial conquest, the Portuguese Empire was primarily a maritime trading network with strategic coastal fortresses and trading posts. The empire was administered through the Casa da Índia (House of India) in Lisbon, which regulated trade and collected the royal fifth (20% tax) on all colonial goods.

The spice trade was particularly lucrative. Before Portuguese voyages, pepper in Europe cost 14 times its price in India due to middlemen. Direct Portuguese access dramatically reduced prices while still generating enormous profits. The empire also traded in gold, ivory, textiles, porcelain, and unfortunately, slaves.

Manuel I (r. 1495-1521), known as "The Fortunate," presided over Portugal's golden age. The wealth from overseas trade funded magnificent architectural projects in the distinctive Manueline style, combining Gothic elements with maritime motifs like twisted rope, coral, and spheres. The Jerónimos Monastery and Belém Tower in Lisbon exemplify this style.

João III (r. 1521-1557) continued expansion but faced growing challenges from European rivals and the costs of maintaining the far-flung empire. He introduced the Inquisition in 1536 and invited the Jesuits to Portugal in 1540, both of which would have profound impacts on Portuguese society and colonies.

Iberian Union and Decline

The young king Sebastião I (r. 1557-1578) became obsessed with crusading against Muslims in North Africa. Despite warnings, he led an ill-prepared expedition to Morocco, where he was killed at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578. His death without an heir triggered a succession crisis.

Philip II of Spain, grandson of Manuel I through his mother, claimed the throne and invaded Portugal in 1580. The Iberian Union lasted 60 years (1580-1640), during which Portugal maintained its laws and administration but lost control of foreign policy. This period coincided with attacks on Portuguese possessions by the Dutch, English, and French, who had previously been excluded from the spice trade.

The Dutch seized parts of Brazil, Angola, and São Tomé, and many Portuguese outposts in Asia including Malacca, Ceylon, and the Moluccas. The English took Hormuz and Bombay. These losses permanently diminished Portugal's empire and trading network.

High Spanish taxation to fund wars against England and the Dutch United Provinces, combined with the exclusion of Portuguese nobles from high positions, fuelled resentment. On 1 December 1640, a group of conspirators assassinated the Secretary of State Miguel de Vasconcelos and proclaimed the Duke of Bragança as King João IV, beginning the Portuguese Restoration War.

The war lasted 28 years until Spain finally recognised Portuguese independence in the Treaty of Lisbon (1668). During this period, Portugal formed alliances with France and England. The 1661 marriage treaty between Charles II of England and Catherine of Bragança brought Tangier and Bombay to England as dowry and reinforced the Anglo-Portuguese alliance.

18th Century: Gold, Reform, and Disaster

The early 18th century brought renewed prosperity due to gold discoveries in Brazil. Between 1700 and 1800, approximately 800 tonnes of gold flowed from Brazil to Portugal, financing lavish royal projects like the Mafra Palace and Convent.

João V (r. 1706-1750) ruled as an absolute monarch in the style of Louis XIV of France. His reign saw the construction of the Águas Livres Aqueduct in Lisbon and the Library of the University of Coimbra. The Treaty of Madrid (1750) redrew colonial boundaries in South America, recognising Portuguese expansion beyond the Tordesillas line and roughly establishing Brazil's modern borders.

On 1 November 1755, Lisbon was struck by one of the deadliest earthquakes in history, estimated at magnitude 8.5-9.0. The earthquake triggered a tsunami and fires that destroyed 85% of the city and killed 30,000-50,000 people. The catastrophe had profound philosophical impacts across Europe, influencing Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Kant.

The Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State to José I (r. 1750-1777), took charge of the reconstruction. His famous response when asked what should be done was "Bury the dead and feed the living." Pombal implemented one of the first scientific urban planning projects, rebuilding downtown Lisbon with wide streets in a grid pattern and buildings designed to withstand earthquakes.

Pombal also implemented sweeping reforms: modernising education, reorganising the army, restructuring the economy, abolishing slavery in Portugal (though not in the colonies), and limiting the Inquisition. His most controversial act was expelling the Jesuits from Portugal and its territories in 1759, accusing them of conspiring against the state.

Napoleonic Era and Brazilian Independence

The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars dramatically impacted Portugal. Initially neutral, Portugal eventually joined the First Coalition against France. After Spain allied with France, Napoleon issued an ultimatum in 1807 demanding Portugal close its ports to British ships and confiscate British property.

When Portugal hesitated, Napoleon sent an invasion force under General Junot. The Portuguese royal family and court (approximately 15,000 people) escaped to Brazil just days before French troops entered Lisbon, transported by the British Royal Navy.

The French occupation was brief but destructive. Three successive invasions (1807-1808, 1809, and 1810-1811) were eventually repelled by Anglo-Portuguese forces led by the Duke of Wellington. The Peninsular War devastated Portugal's economy and infrastructure, with population losses estimated at 200,000 people.

The royal family remained in Brazil, which was elevated from colony to kingdom in 1815, creating the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. This unprecedented move of a European monarch establishing his capital in a colony transformed Rio de Janeiro into a major cultural and political centre.

King João VI returned to Portugal in 1821 following a liberal revolution, leaving his son Pedro as regent in Brazil. When the Portuguese Cortes attempted to return Brazil to colonial status, Pedro declared Brazilian independence on 7 September 1822, becoming Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.

João VI recognised Brazilian independence in 1825 through the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, mediated by Britain. This treaty required Brazil to pay Portugal £2 million in compensation and prohibited the unification of Portugal and Brazil under the same monarch.

Liberal Wars and Constitutional Monarchy

The early 19th century was marked by a struggle between liberals and absolutists. Following João VI's death in 1826, his son Pedro (now Emperor of Brazil) briefly became King Pedro IV of Portugal but abdicated in favour of his daughter Maria II, conditional on her marrying his brother Miguel and the adoption of a liberal constitution.

Miguel seized power in 1828, declaring himself absolute monarch and initiating a reign of terror against liberals. This sparked the Liberal Wars (1828-1834), with Pedro abdicating the Brazilian throne to lead the liberal cause in Portugal. The war ended with liberal victory and the Convention of Évora Monte, which exiled Miguel and established a constitutional monarchy.

The rest of the 19th century saw political instability with frequent changes of government, but also modernisation efforts including:

• Abolition of the slave trade in Portuguese territories (1836)
• Introduction of public education (1844)
• Abolition of the death penalty for civil crimes (1867)
• Complete abolition of slavery in all Portuguese territories (1869)
• Construction of railways linking major cities and to Spain
• Telegraph lines connecting Portugal to the wider world

The "Regeneration" period (1851-1868) under the leadership of the Duke of Saldanha and later Fontes Pereira de Melo brought relative stability and public works projects. However, Portugal remained predominantly agricultural and economically underdeveloped compared to northern European nations.

Colonial policy gained renewed focus after the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 established the "effective occupation" principle for African territories. Portugal's "Pink Map" project aimed to connect Angola and Mozambique across central Africa but was thwarted by the 1890 British Ultimatum demanding Portuguese withdrawal from the region. This national humiliation contributed to republican sentiment and inspired the Portuguese national anthem.

First Republic and Estado Novo

Republican and anticlerical sentiments grew in the late 19th century, particularly in urban areas. On 1 February 1908, King Carlos I and his heir Prince Luís Filipe were assassinated in Lisbon's Praça do Comércio. Carlos's younger son Manuel II succeeded to the throne but could not save the monarchy.

On 5 October 1910, a republican revolution deposed Manuel II, ending the monarchy that had ruled Portugal since 1143. The First Portuguese Republic was established with Teófilo Braga as provisional president.

The Republic implemented reforms including separation of church and state, legalisation of divorce, expansion of women's education, and labour regulations. However, it was plagued by instability with 45 governments in 16 years, 8 presidents, 25 cabinet reorganisations, and 3 counter-revolutions. Portugal entered World War I on the Allied side in 1916, sending troops to France and Africa, further straining national resources.

On 28 May 1926, a military coup overthrew the democratic government. Initially, the dictatorship had no clear ideology, but António de Oliveira Salazar, a professor of economics appointed as Finance Minister in 1928, gradually accumulated power. By 1932, he was Prime Minister, establishing the Estado Novo (New State), an authoritarian regime that would rule Portugal until 1974.

Salazar's regime was characterised by:

• Corporatism, with economic sectors organised into corporations under state supervision
• Catholicism as a central element of national identity
• Anti-communism and opposition to liberal democracy
• Colonial policy emphasising the "pluricontinental" nature of Portugal
• Economic stability and balanced budgets at the cost of development
• Censorship and political repression through the PIDE secret police

Portugal remained neutral during World War II, though it provided tungsten to Nazi Germany and allowed the Allies to use bases in the Azores from 1943. This balancing act and Portugal's status as the oldest ally of Britain helped preserve both the regime and Portuguese colonies after the war.

When India annexed Goa, Daman, and Diu in 1961, Portugal refused to recognise the action. More significantly, armed independence movements emerged in Angola (1961), Guinea-Bissau (1963), and Mozambique (1964), leading to the Portuguese Colonial War that would last until 1974.

The war strained Portugal's resources, with military expenses reaching 40% of the national budget. Approximately 800,000 Portuguese men were conscripted, and over 8,000 died in the conflict. Salazar suffered a stroke in 1968 and was replaced by Marcelo Caetano, who introduced limited reforms but maintained the colonial war.

Carnation Revolution and Democracy

On 25 April 1974, a military coup led by the Armed Forces Movement (MFA), composed mainly of junior officers, overthrew the dictatorship. The revolution was largely bloodless, with civilians placing carnations in the barrels of soldiers' rifles, giving it the name "Carnation Revolution."

The revolution led to rapid decolonisation, with Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Angola all gaining independence by 1975. Approximately 500,000 Portuguese settlers returned from the colonies (retornados), creating significant social and economic challenges.

The post-revolution period (1974-1976) was marked by political instability and social revolution, with workers occupying factories and landless peasants seizing large estates, particularly in the Alentejo region. The country experienced a shift toward socialism, with major industries nationalised and a new constitution in 1976 declaring a "transition to socialism" as a national goal.

By 1976, moderate forces had gained control, and Portugal held its first free elections since 1926. Mário Soares became Prime Minister, leading Portugal toward democratic socialism and European integration. The 1976 Constitution was revised in 1982 to reduce the military's political role and again in 1989 to allow privatisation of nationalised industries.

Portugal joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union) in 1986, along with Spain. This membership brought significant structural funds that helped modernise infrastructure and the economy.

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